Spider Monkeys
12 Apr, 2024
Spider monkeys are New World monkeys of the family Atelidae, subfamily Atelinae. Found in tropical forests from southern Mexico to Brazil, spider monkeys belong to the genus Ateles; the closely related woolly spider monkeys are in the genus Brachyteles.
As they require large tracts of undisturbed forest and specialize on ripe fruits, spider monkeys may be considered an indicator species. The monkeys are threatened by habitat destruction through continued growth in South American agriculture. Disproportionately long, spindly limbs inspired the spider monkey's common name. Their deftly prehensile tails have highly flexible hairless tips.
Spider monkeys have hook-like, narrow and thumbless hands; the fingers are elongate and recurved. The hair is coarse, ranging in color from a ruddy gold to brown and black; the hands and feet are usually black. Heads are small with hairless faces. An unusually long labia in females may be mistaken for a penis; it is used to attract the males. A female will urinate and that scent will stay on her labia with the scent attracting the males.
Forming loose groups of 15-25 individuals, spider monkeys are highly agile; they are said to be second only to the gibbons in this respect. During the day, spider monkey groups break up into smaller subgroups of 2-8 individuals. This social structure ('fission-fusion') is found in only one other primate, the chimpanzee. The size of subgroups and the degree to which they will avoid each other during the day is determined by food competition and the risk of predation. Also less common in primates, females rather than males disperse at puberty to join new groups. Males tend to stick together for their whole life. Hence males in a group are more likely to be related and have closer bonds than females. The strongest social bonds are formed between females and young offspring.
Spider monkeys are diurnal (active during the day) and spend the night in carefully selected sleeping trees. Groups are thought to be directed by a lead female who is responsible for planning an efficient route for the day's feeding activities. Grooming is not as important to social interaction, due perhaps to a lack of thumbs.
Spider monkeys mate year round. The female monkey chooses a male from her group with whom to mate. Both male and female spider monkeys sniff their mates to check their readiness for copulation. This process is known as “anogenital sniffing.” On average, only one offspring at a time is produced from each female. The gestation period for spider monkeys ranges from 226 to 232 days. For the first four months of life, baby spider monkeys cling to their mother's belly. Soon after, they climb to her back, eventually developing enough independence to travel on their own. Male spider monkeys have nothing to do with the raising of offspring.
At 107 grams, the spider monkey brain is twice the size of a howler monkey's of equivalent body size. This is thought to be a result of the spider monkeys' complex social system as well as their diet, which consists primarily of ripe fruit from a wide variety (over 150 species) of plants. The slow rate of development in spider monkeys may also play a role, females giving birth once every 3-4 years. Spider monkeys may live for 20 years or more.
THREATS TO SPIDER MONKEYS
Spider monkeys are widely hunted by local human populations; they are also threatened by habitat destruction due to logging and land clearing. Spider monkeys are susceptible to malaria and are used in laboratory studies of the disease. The population trend for spider monkeys is decreasing; the IUCN Red List lists one species as vulnerable, four species as endangered and two species as critically endangered.
PET SPIDER MONKEYS
Thousands of primates are peddled as "pets" each year, including monkeys, apes and lemurs. Highly intelligent and social animals, they suffer terribly in the inhumane pet trade.
These wild animals are bred in captivity and taken from their mothers within hours or days of birth, or stolen from their mother in the wild who is often killed in the process. Sold like toys by unethical businesses and backyard breeders, profit is put above the welfare of the animals.
Unprepared guardians purchase the animals, often with little knowledge on primate care. Adorable baby monkeys quickly grow into aggressive and territorial adults. Guardians often resort to drastic measures to control the animals, such as inhumane tooth removal. Eventually they are abandoned, given to roadside zoos or sold to another unprepared family where the cycle begins again. They end up living their lives in tiny cages, isolated, lonely, deprived of their wild nature and social interaction with their own kind.
The complex physical, psychological and social needs of primates can never be met when they are kept as pets. Living in constant frustration, these wild animals can inflict serious and catastrophic injuries. They can also spread diseases that are deadly to humans, including viral, bacterial, fungal and parasitic infections. It is common for monkeys to carry tuberculosis, hepatitis and simian herpes B.
Even the smallest of monkeys are incredibly strong and become unpredictable when they reach sexual maturity. Hundreds of people have been injured by attacks from primates, sometimes causing permanent disability and disfigurement.
SPIDER MONKEYS USED IN RESEARCH
Every year thousands of monkeys are imprisoned in laboratories, where they are abused, neglected and killed in invasive and painful experiments. They are either bred in government or commercial facilities or laboratories, or captured from the wild. Those born in laboratories are torn from their mothers usually within three days of birth. Those from the wild are often taken from their mothers, who are sometimes killed. They are crammed into tiny crates with little to no food or water and taken to filthy holding centers, followed by long and terrifying trips in the cargo holds of passenger airlines. Following the traumatic separation from their families and/or homes, monkeys in laboratories are usually confined to small, barren cages. They barely have enough room to sit, stand, lie down or turn around.
90 percent of primates in laboratories exhibit abnormal behaviors caused by the physical abuse, psychological stress, social isolation and barren confinement that they are forced to endure. Many go insane, rocking back and forth, pacing endlessly in the cages, and engaging in repetitive motions and acts of self-mutilation.
Their fundamental needs and desires are disregarded and they are subjected to painful and traumatic procedures. Most animal experiments are not relevant to human health and do not contribute meaningfully to medical advances. Human clinical and epidemiological studies, human tissue and cell-based research methods, cadavers, sophisticated high-fidelity human patient simulators and computational models are more reliable, more precise, less expensive and more humane than animal experiments.
SPIDER MONKEYS IN THE ENTERTAINMENT INDUSTRY
The use of monkeys as “entertainers” removes animals from their natural habitat; depriving them of the ability to freely engage in instinctual behaviors. Both children and adults are desensitized to animal mistreatment by the animal entertainment industry. Whether they're at a zoo, on a film set, or under a circus tent, monkeys used as entertainment are forced to perform unnatural and painful tasks through abusive training methods.
Animals used in film, television, advertising or as sports mascots are ripped away from their mothers as infants. They are forced to spend most of their lives in small cages. They often live alone, resulting in severe psychological anxiety. “Performing” is stressful, confusing and often torturous. Training methods may involve beating the animals, causing them to be constantly anxious and fearful. When the animals become too large to handle, they are often dumped at shoddy roadside zoos and other substandard facilities, where they spend the rest of their lives in small, barren cages—many in solitary confinement. “Retirement” from entertainment is a long life of misery for these highly intelligent and sensitive animals. The American Humane Association’s (AHA) “No Animals Were Harmed” seal of approval is extremely misleading. AHA does not monitor living conditions of animals off set, during pre-production training, or during the premature separation of infants from their mothers.
Circus animals are forced to travel in box cars or trucks for months at a time with no regard for temperature, exercise or normal interaction with their own kind. These animals do not willingly stand on their heads, jump through rings of fire, or ride bicycles. They don’t perform these tricks because they want to and they don’t do any of these meaningless acts in their natural habitat. They do not perform because they are positively reinforced. Instead, they are trained with varying levels of punishment, neglect and deprivation.
Even under the best of circumstances, captivity is cruel for wild animals. Confined to tiny areas and gawked at by crowds, animals in exhibits and acts endure constant stress. They may suffer from temperature extremes and irregular feeding and watering. Without exercise, they become listless, their immune systems are weakened, and they become prone to sickness; many resort to self-mutilation in reaction to stress or boredom. Mental illness is rampant among confined animals. Torn from their families and deprived of all dignity, every part of their lives is controlled by their captors.
While zoos may appear to be educational and conservation-oriented, most are designed with the needs and desires of the visitors in mind, not the needs of the animals. Many animals in zoos exhibit abnormal behavior as a result of being deprived of their natural environments and social structures. When the facility breeds too many animals they become "surplus" and often are sold to laboratories, traveling shows, shooting ranches, or to private individuals who may be unqualified to care for them.
Grizzly Bears
12 Apr, 2024
The brown bear (known as the grizzly in the Lower 48 states) is a large predator distinguished from black bears by a distinctive hump on the shoulders, a dished profile to the face, and long claws about the length of a human finger. Coloration is usually darkish brown but can vary from very light cream to black. The long guard hairs on their back and shoulders often have white tips and give the bears a "grizzled" appearance, hence the name "grizzly."
Brown bears vary greatly in size. Adult males can weigh from 300 to 850 pounds while females weigh in between 200 and 450 pounds. The largest brown bears are found along the coast of Alaska and British Columbia, and islands such as Kodiak and Admiralty Islands. Here, because of a consistent diet of high protein salmon, males average over 700 pounds and females average about 450 pounds. European brown bears and brown bears from the interior of North America average about two-thirds the size of these large coastal brown bears. Despite this large size, brown bears are extremely agile and fast, reaching speeds of 35 to 40 mph.
Brown bears are found in a variety of habitats, from dense forests, to subalpine meadows and arctic tundra. The brown bear is thought to have adapted to the life of a plains or steppe animal and was once common on the Great Plains of North America. Human encroachment has forced the remaining brown bear populations to select rugged mountains and remote forests that are undisturbed by humans.
Brown bears are found in North America, eastern and western Europe, northern Asia and in Japan. In North America, brown bears are found in western Canada, Alaska, and in the states of Wyoming, Montana, Idaho, and Washington. Brown bears have the widest distribution of any bear species and occupy a wide range of habitats. Historically, they could be found from Alaska to Mexico, California to Ohio.
In the Lower 48 states there are 800 - 1,020 brown bears surviving. Of these, about 350 live in northwestern Montana, 350-400 live in or around Yellowstone National Park, about 30 in the Selkirk Mountains in northern Idaho/northeast Washington, about 30 live in the Cabinet-Yaak ecosystem in northern Idaho/western Montana, and perhaps 20 live in the North Cascades of upper Washington State. In Alaska, there are about 30,000.
Females reach sexual maturity at 4 to 7 years old and breed in early May through mid-July. Bears experience "delayed implantation" so that the fertilized egg does not begin to develop until November, enabling the young to be born in January or February while the mothers are hibernating in a den. Cubs are about 1 - 1½ pounds when born and litter sizes range from 1 - 3, but two is most common. Cubs will remain with their mothers for at least 2 - 4 years, and females won’t breed again while in the company of their young. Thus, the breeding interval is three or more years between successive litters.
Brown bears are omnivores and will eat both vegetation and animals. Grasses, sedges, roots, berries, insects, fish, carrion and small and large mammals are all part of a bear's diet. In some areas they have become significant predators of large hoofed mammals such as moose, caribou and elk. In other areas a large, consistent supply of food like salmon have led to behavioral changes that allow large congregations of brown bears to share an abundant resource. The diet of brown bears varies depending on what foods are available in that particular season or habitat.
Bears live solitary lives except during breeding, cub rearing, and in those areas with a super-abundant food supply such as salmon streams. Brown bears hibernate during the winter for 5-8 months, depending on the location, and usually dig their dens on north-facing slopes to ensure good snow cover. Brown bears need to eat a lot in the summer and fall in order to build up sufficient fat reserves for surviving the denning period. This is particularly true for pregnant females who give birth to one-pound cubs and then nurse them to about 20 pounds before emerging from the den in April - May...all the time without eating or drinking. These bears will defend their territories, and mothers are known for their ferocity in defending their cubs. Brown bears can live up to 30 years in the wild, though 20 - 25 is normal.
THREATS TO BROWN BEARS
Most of the threats to the survival of brown bears are associated with degradation of habitat due to development, logging, road-building and energy and mineral exploration. Habitat destruction in valley bottoms and riparian areas is particularly harmful to grizzlies because they use these as "corridors" to travel from one area to another.
Another major threat to the brown bear is human-caused mortality. Some brown bears are killed by hunters who mistake them for black bears, a legal game species. Other bears become habituated to humans because of what biologists call "attractants," which include garbage, pet foods, livestock carcasses, and improper camping practices. This can eventually lead to conflicts between people and bears - not only in populated areas of the grizzly's range, but also in back-country recreation sites and removal of the bear.
Illegal killing (poaching) of bears remains another factor leading to their decline.
Brown bears are also victims of the animal entertainment industry. They are found on display at zoos, denied their wild nature, strong family bonds and natural social interactions. Like all captive wildlife, they face constant stress and are denied their wild nature and social structures. The needs and desires of humans comes before the needs of the animals in the animal entertainment industry.
Falcons
12 Apr, 2024
A falcon is any of several species of bird of the genus Falco, such as the peregrine falcon, which are raptors or birds of prey. These birds have thin, pointed wings which allow them to dive at extremely high speeds. Peregrine falcons, the fastest birds on earth, are said to have reached speeds of up to 200 mph. Other falcons include the gyrfalcon, Lanner falcon, and the Merlin. Some small insectivorous falcons with long, narrow wings are called hobbies, and some which hover as they hunt for small rodents are called kestrels. The falcons are part of the family Falconidae, which also includes the caracaras, laughing falcon, forest falcons, and falconets.
PEREGRINE FALCON
Peregrine falcons live mostly along mountain ranges, river valleys, and coastlines, and increasingly in cities. They are widespread throughout the entire world and are found on all continents except Antarctica. Peregrines in mild-winter regions are usually permanent residents, and some birds, especially adult males, will remain on the breeding territory. However, the Arctic subspecies migrate; tundrius birds from Alaska, northern Canada and Greenland migrate to Central and South America, and all calidus birds from northern Eurasia move further south or to coasts in winter.
Peregrine falcons feed almost exclusively on birds, such as doves, waterfowl and songbirds, but occasionally they hunt small mammals, including bats, rats, voles and rabbits. Insects and reptiles make up a relatively small proportion of their diet. On the other hand, a growing number of city-dwelling falcons find that feral pigeons and common starlings provide plenty of food.
Peregrine falcons breed at approximately two to three years of age. They mate for life and return to the same nesting spot annually. Their courtship includes a mix of aerial acrobatics, precise spirals, and steep dives. Females lay an average of three to four eggs. Scrapes are normally made on cliff edges or, increasingly more so, on tall buildings or bridges. They occasionally nest in tree hollows or in the disused nest of other large birds. The laying date varies according to locality, but is generally from February to March. The females incubate the eggs for twenty-nine to thirty-two days at which point the eggs hatch. Thirty-five to forty-two days after hatching, the chicks will fledge, but they tend to remain dependent on their parents for a further two months. The tercel, or male, provides most of the food for himself, the female, and the chicks; the falcon, or female, stays and watches the young.
Because of their high metabolic rates, peregrine falcons must consume more food in proportion to their size than most animals. To be efficient flyers, the digestive system of birds has to be both as light as possible and as efficient as possible. The need to keep weight as low as possible also means that, except perhaps prior to migration, there is a limit to the amount of fat the peregrine falcon can store. The respiratory system is also unique; the peregrine falcon maintains a one-way flow of air so that it can breathe while flying. The peregrine falcon also has cones in its nostrils to help regulate breathing at high speeds. Its circulatory system also needs to be exceptionally strong, because flying takes lots of oxygen. A bird's heart beats much faster than the human heart does, approximately 600-900 beats per minute.
The average life span of a peregrine falcon is approximately eight to ten years, although some have been recorded to live until slightly more than twenty years of age.
GYR FALCON
The Gyr falcon (Falco rusticolus) is a large bird of prey. This species breeds on Arctic coasts and islands of North America, Europe and Asia. It is mainly resident, but some birds disperse more widely after the breeding season, or in winter. Its male is sometimes called a Gyrkin and is smaller than the female.
The Gyr falcon is a bird of tundra and mountains, with cliffs or a few patches of trees. It lays 2-6 eggs on a cliff ledge nest. This is the largest falcon, with a wingspan similar to the common buzzard. The female is larger than the male.
This species is like a large peregrine falcon in general structure, but broader-winged and longer-tailed than the peregrine. It usually hunts by horizontal pursuit, rather than the peregrine's stoop from a height, and takes bird and small mammal prey such as ptarmigans and lemmings. Plumage is very variable in this species, although typically adults have slate-gray back and wings, and young birds are browner. Sexes are similar. Greenland gyr Falcons have white plumage, flecked with gray on the back and wings. Other geographical forms are varying intensities of gray in coloration: the Icelandic form is the palest, and Eurasian forms are considerably darker.
LANNER FALCON
The Lanner falcon (Falco biarmicus) is a large bird of prey that breeds in Africa, southeast Europe and just into Asia. It is mainly resident, but some birds disperse more widely after the breeding season. The scientific or Latin name biarmicus comes from the fact that the Lanner has a sharp raised point located on its beak's edge about half the distance from the end of the beak to the corner of the mouth. Thus it is doubly armed with two cutting weapons on its beak. Nearly all falcons have this same type of beak structure.
It is a bird of open country and savannah. It lays 3-4 eggs on a cliff ledge nest, or occasionally in an old stick nest in a tree. Lanner falcon is a large falcon. It is like a large peregrine falcon in general structure. It usually hunts by horizontal pursuit, rather than the peregrine's stoop from a height, and takes mainly bird prey in flight.
European Lanner falcons have slate gray or brown-gray upper-parts, but the African birds are a paler blue gray above. The breast is streaked, but the belly is whitish, unlike Saker falcon. Sexes are similar, but the browner young birds resemble Saker. However, they never show the all-dark thighs of the larger species. Bred in captivity for falconry, their numbers are in something of a decline in Europe, though they remain relatively common in parts of Africa.
KESTREL
The name kestrel is given to several different members of the falcon genus, Falco. Kestrels are most easily distinguished by their typical hunting behavior which is to hover over open country and swoop down on prey, usually small mammals, lizards or large insects. Other falcons are more adapted to active hunting on the wing. Kestrels require a slight headwind in order to hover, hence a local name of windhover for common kestrel.
Their ability to spot prey is enhanced by being able to see ultra-violet which is strongly reflected by vole urine. Plumage typically differs between male and female, and (as is usual with monogamous raptors) the female is slightly larger than the male. This allows a pair to fill different feeding niches over their home range.
Kestrels are bold and have adapted well to human encroachment, nesting in buildings and hunting by major roads. Kestrels do not build their own nests, but use nests built by other species.
THREATS TO FALCONS
The peregrine falcon became endangered because of the overuse of pesticides during the 1950s and 1960s. Pesticide build-up interfered with reproduction, thinning eggshells and severely restricting the ability of birds to reproduce. The DDT buildup in the falcon's fat tissues would result in less calcium in the eggshells, leading to flimsier, more fragile eggs. In several parts of the world, this species was wiped out by pesticides. Eggs and chicks are often targeted by thieves and collectors.
Wildlife services around the world organized peregrine falcon recovery teams to breed them in captivity. The birds were fed through a chute so they could not see the human trainers. Then, when they were old enough, the box was opened. This allowed the bird to test its wings. As the bird got stronger, the food was reduced because the bird could hunt its own food. This procedure is called hacking. To release a captive-bred falcon, the bird was placed in a special box at the top of a tower or cliff ledge. Worldwide recovery efforts have been remarkably successful.
In the United States, the banning of DDT eventually allowed released birds to breed successfully. The peregrine falcon was removed from the U.S. Threatened and Endangered Species list on August 25, 1999. In 2003, some states began issuing limited numbers of falconry permits for peregrines due to the success of the recovery program. In the UK, there has been a good recovery of populations since the 1960s.
Anteaters
11 Apr, 2024
Anteater is a common name for the four mammal species of the suborder Vermilingua (meaning "worm tongue") that eat ants and termites. The individual species have other names in English and other languages. Together with the sloths, they are within the order Pilosa. The name "anteater" is also applied to the unrelated aardvark, numbat, echidnas, pangolins and some members of the Oecobiidae.
Species include the giant anteater Myrmecophaga tridactyla, about 5 feet 11 inches long including the tail; the silky anteater Cyclopes didactylus, about 14 inches long; the southern tamandua or collared anteater Tamandua tetradactyla, about 3 feet 11 inches long; and the northern tamandua Tamandua Mexicana of similar size.
All anteaters have elongated snouts equipped with a thin tongue that can be extended to a length greater than the length of the head. Their tube-shaped mouths have lips but no teeth. They use their large, curved foreclaws to tear open ant and termite mounds and for defense, while their dense and long fur protects them from attacks from the insects.
All species except the giant anteater have a long prehensile tail.
Anteaters are mostly solitary mammals prepared to defend their territories. They do not normally enter a territory of another anteater of the same sex, but males often enter the territory of associated females. When a territorial dispute occurs, they vocalize, swat, and can sometimes sit on or even ride the back of their opponents.
Anteaters have poor sight but an excellent sense of smell, and most species depend on the latter for foraging, feeding, and defense. Their hearing is thought to be good.
Anteaters, like other xenarthrans, have among the lowest body temperatures of any mammal, and can tolerate greater fluctuations in body temperature than most mammals. Its daily energy intake from food is only slightly greater than its energy need for daily activities, and anteaters probably coordinate their body temperatures so they keep cool during periods of rest, and heat up during foraging.
Adult males are slightly larger and more muscular than females, and have wider heads and necks. Fertilization occurs by contact transfer without intromission, similar to some lizards. Mating usually results in a single offspring; twins are possible but rare. The large foreclaws prevent mothers from grasping their newborns and they therefore have to carry the offspring until they are self-sufficient.
Anteaters are specialized to feed on small insects. Each anteater species has its own insect preferences: small species are specialized on arboreal insects living on small branches, while large species can penetrate the hard covering of the nests of terrestrial insects. To avoid the jaws, sting, and other defenses of the invertebrates, anteaters have adopted the feeding strategy of licking up large numbers of ants and termites as quickly as possible — an anteater normally spends about a minute at a nest before moving on to another — and a giant anteater has to visit up to 200 nests to consume the thousands of insects it needs to satisfy its caloric requirements.
The anteater's tongue is covered with thousands of tiny hooks called filiform papillae which are used to hold the insects together with large amounts of saliva. Swallowing and the movement of the tongue are aided by side-to-side movements of the jaws. The tongue is attached to the sternum and moves very quickly, flicking 150 times per minute. The anteater's stomach, similar to a bird's gizzard, has hardened folds and uses strong contractions to grind the insects; a digestive process assisted by small amounts of ingested sand and dirt.
Silky anteaters and northern tamanduas live as far north as southeastern Mexico, while giant anteaters can be found as far north as Central America. Southern tamanduas range south to Uruguay and the ranges of all species except the northern tamandua overlap in eastern Brazil.
Anteater habitats includes dry tropical forests, rainforests, grasslands, and savannas. The silky anteater is specialized to an arboreal environment, but the more opportunistic tamanduas find their food both on the ground and in trees, typically in dry forests near streams and lakes. The almost entirely terrestrial giant anteater lives in savannas. The two anteaters of the genus Tamandua, the southern and the northern tamanduas, are much smaller than the giant anteater, and differ essentially from it in their habits, being mainly arboreal. They inhabit the dense primeval forests of South and Central America. The usual color is yellowish-white, with a broad black lateral band, covering nearly the whole of the side of the body. The silky anteater is a native of the hottest parts of South and Central America, and about the size of a cat, of a general yellowish color, and exclusively arboreal in its habits.
THREATS TO ANTEATERS
Like most animals, the primary threat to anteaters is the destruction of their habitat. Human development has taken an alarming toll on the environment. Impact from land use practices such as agricultural conversion, deforestation, and urban sprawl continue to degrade and fragment remaining pockets of habitat and accelerate biodiversity loss.
Pesticides and other forms of pollution are also of serious concern, as well as genetically modified organisms (GMOs).
The main threats to the giant anteater is habitat loss by agricultural encroachment and fires. The giant anteater is classified as Near Threatened by IUCN.
Howler Monkeys
10 Apr, 2024
Howler monkeys are one of the largest species of monkeys inhabiting the forests and savannas of South America. Being the loudest animals in the world, they are known for their distinctive calls that can be heard miles away. There are 9 different species of howler monkey. Howler monkeys inhabit the central parts of South America in Brazil, Bolivia, Argentina and Paraguay.
Howler monkeys are New World monkeys. Unlike Old World monkeys, New World monkey possess wide, side-opening nostrils and do not have pads on their rumps. They also have prehensile tails, or tails that can grip. Howler monkeys are diurnal; they are active during the day and sleep at night.
Howler monkeys possess large necks and jaws that enable them to make their loud vocalizations. They have long tails that help them to grasp branches and move through the forest canopies. Despite being large monkeys, howler monkeys weigh very little allowing them to move through the forest with great agility. Their light weight also allows howler monkeys to hang from branches by their tails.
Howler monkeys have beards and long, thick hair. Male howler monkeys and female howler monkeys have a very different appearance. Female howler monkeys have yellow to olive brown fur. Male howler monkeys have black fur. Male howler monkeys are larger than female howler monkeys.
Howler monkeys move in troops of up to 18 howler monkeys. The leader of a howler monkey troop is usually an elder male. Troop members spend much of their time grooming each other and sleeping. Howler monkeys are believed to be one of the least active monkeys.
Howler monkeys can project their voices for miles. Howler monkeys usually howl during the mornings and evenings to alert neighboring troops of their presence. Howling sessions involve the entire troop of howler monkeys. Howler monkey calls sound like a loud roar or whooping bark. After one troop of howler monkeys calls, another troop answers. Despite being territorial, howler monkeys rarely engage in conflict and sometimes even share an overlapping territory.
Howler monkeys feed mostly on eat leaves, but will sometimes eat fruit, seeds, flowers, buds and moss. Howler monkeys get most of their water from the food they eat.
Howler monkeys prefer not to jump from tree to tree, rather they use their hands, feet, or tails to hold on to one tree as they reach to the next tree. They will link together hand-to-tail between trees to create a bridge for young howler monkeys to walk across.
Howler monkey females usually have one baby each year. When howler monkey babies are born they are a light golden brown so they can hide in their mother’s fur. Girl baby howler monkeys maintain the light brown color fur. Boy baby howler monkey fur darkens to black in about three years.
Howler monkeys live to be around 20 years old. Being large animals, howler monkeys have few predators with the exception of harpy eagles and humans.
THREATS TO HOWLER MONKEYS
Howler monkeys are threatened with habitat loss from clear cutting and logging by the animal agriculture industry. Their populations are in decline, especially in the Argentinean provinces of Salta, Formosa, Misiones and Corrientes. The Yucatán Black howler monkey is endangered. Howler monkeys are also targeted for bushmeat.
Starfish
9 Apr, 2024
Starfish, or sea stars, are star-shaped echinoderms belonging to the class Asteroidea. About 1,500 species of starfish occur on the seabed in all the world's oceans, from the tropics to frigid polar waters.
Starfish are marine invertebrates. They typically have a central disc and five arms, though some species have more. The aboral, or upper, surface may be smooth, granular or spiny, and is covered with overlapping plates. Many species are brightly colored in various shades of red or orange, while others are blue, grey or brown.
Starfish have tube feet operated by a hydraulic system and a mouth at the center of the oral, or lower, surface. They are opportunistic feeders, and are mostly predators on bottom-dwelling invertebrates. Several species have specialized feeding behaviors.
Starfish have complex life cycles and can reproduce both sexually and asexually. Most can regenerate damaged parts or lost arms and they can shed arms as a means of defense. Some starfish can even regenerate their whole body from a single arm, or even from fragments of an arm. Regrowth can take several months or years. A separated limb lives off stored nutrients until it regrows a disc and mouth and is able to feed again.
Echinoderms, including starfish, maintain a delicate internal electrolyte balance that is in equilibrium with sea water. This means that it is only possible for them to live in a marine environment and they are not found in any freshwater habitats. Starfish species inhabit all of the world's oceans. Habitats include tropical coral reefs, rocky shores, tidal pools, mud, sand, kelp forests, seagrass meadows and the deep-sea floor. The lifespan of a starfish varies considerably between species, generally being longer in larger forms.
Most species of starfish are gonochorous, there being separate male and female individuals. Some species are simultaneous hermaphrodites, producing eggs and sperm at the same time. Other starfish are sequential hermaphrodites. Individuals of species like Asterina gibbosa start life as males before changing sex into females as they grow older. In some species such as Nepanthia belcheri, a large female can split in half and the resulting offspring are males. When these grow large enough they change back into females.
Starfish fertilization is generally external. In most species, the buoyant eggs and sperm are simply released into the water (free spawning) and the resulting embryos and larvae live as part of the plankton. In others, the eggs may be stuck to the undersides of rocks. Some starfish brood their eggs in pouches or by "sitting" on them. Brooding is especially common in polar and deep-sea species that live in environments unfavorable for larval development, and in smaller species that produce just a few eggs.
In the tropics, a plentiful supply of phytoplankton is continuously available for starfish larvae to feed on. Spawning takes place at any time of year, each species having its own characteristic breeding season. In temperate regions, the spring and summer brings an increase in food supplies. The first individual of a species to spawn may release a pheromone that serves to attract other starfish. In some species, a male and female may come together and form a pair. Starfish may use environmental signals to coordinate the time of spawning (day length to indicate the correct time of the year, dawn or dusk to indicate the correct time of day), and chemical signals to indicate their readiness to breed.
Most species of starfish are generalist predators, eating microalgae, sponges, bivalves, snails and other small animals. Some species are detritivores, eating decomposing organic material and fecal matter.
Starfish occupy several significant ecological roles. Starfish are keystone species in their respective marine communities. Their relatively large sizes, diverse diets and ability to adapt to different environments makes them ecologically important.
The feeding activity of the omnivorous starfish Oreaster reticulatus on sandy and seagrass bottoms in the Virgin Islands appears to regulate the diversity, distribution and abundance of microorganisms. These starfish engulf piles of sediment removing the surface films and algae adhering to the particles. Organisms that dislike this disturbance are replaced by others better able to rapidly recolonize "clean" sediment. In addition, foraging by these migratory starfish creates diverse patches of organic matter, which may play a role in the distribution and abundance of organisms such as fish, crabs and sea urchins that feed on the sediment.
THREATS TO STARFISH
Several species of starfish sometimes suffer from a wasting condition caused by bacteria. Starfish are vulnerable to high temperatures. Starfish and other echinoderms are sensitive to marine pollution. The common starfish is considered to be a bioindicator for marine ecosystems.
Starfish are inhumanely taken from their habitat and sold to tourists as souvenirs, ornaments, curios or for display in aquariums. In particular, Oreaster reticulatus, with its easily accessed habitat and conspicuous coloration, is widely collected in the Caribbean. In the early to mid 20th century, this species was common along the coasts of the West Indies, but collection and trade have severely reduced its numbers. In the State of Florida, O. reticulatus is listed as endangered and its collection is illegal. Nevertheless, it is still sold throughout its range and beyond. A similar situation exists in the Indo-Pacific for species such as Protoreaster nodosus.
Jellyfish
8 Apr, 2024
Jellyfish are one of the oldest animals on Earth. They appeared before dinosaurs, between 500 and 700 million years ago. Jellyfish are found in every ocean, and even in some freshwater ponds and lakes. Most jellyfish prefer warm water, but some inhabit subarctic areas. There are hundreds of different types of jellyfish. They can be found at different depths, from the water's surface to the bottom of the ocean.
Despite their name, jellyfish are not fish – they are plankton. Jellyfish are invertebrates; animals without skeletons. About 95% of their bodies are water. Jellyfish range in size from as small as a pinhead, to as long as two blue whales. They have a bell or umbrella shaped body and tentacles. Jellyfish can be vividly colored or transparent.
Jellyfish not only do not have bones, they have no brains, heads or hearts. Some species have very simple, eye-like organs called ocelli that are able to detect light.
Jellyfish are well known for their ability to sting. It is the main defense of some jellyfish, along with their often transparent bodies that makes it easy for them to hide. Jellyfish tentacles are armed with thousands of cells that house coiled, stinging threads. When another animal gets tangled in the tentacles, the venomous threads uncoil like spring-loaded harpoons. Even dead jellyfish are able to sting, and a jellyfish tentacle can still sting if it is separated from the jellyfish’s body. Jellyfish kill more people than sharks each year.
Most jellyfish are passive carnivores, feeding on plankton, fish eggs, small fish, crustaceans and other jellyfish. They use their stinging cells to catch their prey. Jellyfish have short tubes hanging from their bodies that act like mouths and digestive systems. In some species of jellyfish, the tube is surrounded by frilly pieces that look similar to curly ribbons.
Jellyfish are not the best swimmers. They rely on currents to get around. Sometimes currents gather hundreds or thousands of jellyfish into one area. These gatherings are called swarms. When jellyfish food sources are abundant, and environmental conditions are optimal, jellyfish reproduction can dramatically increase. This phenomenon is referred to as a bloom. Changing ocean conditions, including increased temperatures and low concentrations of oxygen, are creating a lot of jellyfish blooms around the world.
Jellyfish reproduce asexually or sexually. Most jellyfish are either male or female, but some jellyfish are hermaphrodites – both male and female. Some species shoot eggs from their mouths that are fertilized outside the body. Other jellyfish species carry their eggs in their mouths until the jellyfish babies form.
Jellyfish usually have two basic life stages. Jellyfish are called polyps in their first stage, growing by making buds similar to plants. Polyps stay attached to rocks on the bottom of the water. Polyps bud off into little jellyfish known as ephyra. Within a few weeks ephyra grow into medusa, or adult jellyfish.
Jellyfish have several predators, including sea turtles, sharks, swordfish, tuna, one type of Pacific salmon and other jellyfish.
Jellyfish can live over 30 years in the wild, depending on the species.
THREATS TO JELLYFISH
While some species of jellyfish are endangered, environmental stressors including changes in climate, pollution, overharvesting of fish, and dams have actually led to the proliferation of most jellyfish. Jellyfish populations are increasing around the world as jellyfish predators are disappearing. Increased temperatures and low concentrations of oxygen often facilitate jellyfish blooms.
Pythons
7 Apr, 2024
Python is the common name for a group of non-venomous constricting snakes, specifically the family Pythonidae. Other sources consider this group a subfamily of the Boas (Pythoninae). Pythons are more related to boas than to any other snake-family. There is also a genus within Pythonidae which carries the name Python (Daudin, 1803). Pythons are distinguishable from boas in that they have teeth on the premaxilla, a small bone at the very front and center of the upper jaw. Most boas produce live young, while pythons produce eggs. Some species of sandboas (Ericinae) are also called python.
Pythons are found in Australia, Southeast Asia, India and Africa. Most pythons live in the dense underbrush of rugged tropical rainforest regions. They are excellent climbers; some species, like the green tree python, are arboreal. Like all snakes, they are also capable swimmers.
Pythons range in size from 15 to 20 feet in length. They are among the longest species of snake in the world. The reticulated python holds the record for longest snake at 32 feet, 9.5 inches. Some species exhibit vestigial bones of the pelvis and rear legs, which are externally apparent in the form of a pair of anal spurs on each side of the cloaca. These spurs are larger in males than females, and are used by the male to stimulate the female during copulation. Some pythons display vivid patterns on their scales, while others are a nondescript brown. They usually reflect appropriate camouflage for their native habitat.
Pythons are constrictors, and feed on birds and mammals, killing them by squeezing them to death. They coil themselves up around their prey, tighten, but merely squeeze hard enough to stop the prey's breathing and/or blood circulation. Large pythons will usually eat something about the size of a house cat, but larger food items are not unknown. They swallow their prey whole, and take several days or even weeks to fully digest it.
Despite their intimidating size and muscular power, they are generally not dangerous to humans. While a large adult python could kill a human being (most likely by strangling rather than actual crushing), humans are outside the normal size range for prey. Reports of python attacks on humans are extremely rare. Despite this, pythons have been aggressively hunted, driving some species (like the Indian python) to the brink of extinction.
Most pythons have heat-sensing organs in their lips. These enable them to detect objects that are hotter than the surrounding environment. Pythons that do not have heat-sensing organs identify their prey by smell. Pythons are ambush predators: they typically stay in a camouflaged position and then suddenly strike at passing prey. Females protecting their eggs can be aggressive.
Pythons lay eggs which they arrange in a pile. They coil around the pile until all eggs have hatched. Since pythons cannot regulate their internal body temperature, they cannot incubate their eggs per se; instead, they raise the temperature of their eggs by small movements of their body - essentially, they "shiver".
THREATS TO PYTHONS
Collection for the exotic pet trade threatens pythons. Every year, a variety of sources provides millions of animals to the exotic pet trade. Animals are captured from their native habitat and transported to various countries to be sold as “pets”. Others are surplus animals from zoos or their offspring. Backyard breeders also supply exotic animals. The sellers of these animals often disregard state or local laws regulating private possession of exotics, and the dangers, difficulties, physical and physiological needs of the animals they peddle. The suffering of the animals in the hands of unqualified and hapless buyers appears to be of no concern in the lucrative exotic pet trade. Reptiles pose safety risks to humans. Many incidents have been reported of escapes, strangulations, and bites from pet reptiles across the country.
Pythons are also victims of the animal entertainment industry. The use of wild animals as “entertainers” removes animals from their natural habitat; depriving them of the ability to freely engage in instinctual behaviors. Both children and adults are desensitized to animal mistreatment by the animal entertainment industry. Even under the best of circumstances, captivity is cruel for wild animals. Confined to tiny areas and gawked at by crowds, animals in exhibits and acts endure constant stress. They may suffer from temperature extremes and irregular feeding and watering. Without exercise, they become listless, their immune systems are weakened, and they become prone to sickness; many resort to self-mutilation in reaction to stress or boredom. Mental illness is rampant among confined animals. Torn from their families and deprived of all dignity, every part of their lives is controlled by their captors. While zoos may appear to be educational and conservation-oriented, most are designed with the needs and desires of the visitors in mind, not the needs of the animals.
Vultures
7 Apr, 2024
Vultures are large, carnivorous birds well known for their scavenging nature. These incredibly intelligent birds help to keep the environment clean and prevent the spread of disease. They are found on every continent except the Antarctic, Australia and the surrounding islands. Vultures are classified into two groups, old world vultures and new world vultures. There are over two dozen species within these two groups.
Old world vultures inhabit Asia, Africa and Europe and are closely related to hawks and eagles. They are not closely related to the new world vultures. Old world vultures use sight alone to find food.
New world vultures inhabit the Americas. They are connected to old world vultures through evolutionary status rather than DNA. New world vultures are usually smaller than old world vultures. New world vultures find food sources with both sight and smell.
Vultures have wide wingspans that enable them to soar for extended periods without flapping their wings while looking for carrion. The Andean condor of South America is the largest vulture in the world. The crow-sized hooded vulture of Africa is the smallest vulture. The Rueppell’s griffon vulture is the highest flying bird in the world.
Most vultures have a large pouch in their throats called a crop. They have strong, curved beaks designed for ripping apart meat. Vultures have bare heads, and sometimes bare necks, to prevent bacteria and other parasites from burrowing into their feathers and to aid in thermoregulation. Germs on vultures heads are baked off by the sun.
All vultures prefer to scavenge for their food rather than hunt. Vultures feed on the remains of dead animals. They will attack wounded and dying animals when carcasses are not available. Vultures eat all parts of animal carcasses with the exception of bones. Vultures can go for long periods without food.
Vultures are able to consume carcasses that have rotted to the extent of being toxic to other animals, making vultures very important ecologically. Vulture stomach acids are able to kill harmful bacteria and viruses, and halt the potential spread of disease from rotting carcasses.
Vultures often feed with other animal species. Old world vultures have strong feet, but new world Vultures have weak, flat feet poorly adapted for grasping. If they are not able to rip open a carcass themselves, they will wait for another predator to open it.
Vultures engage in urohydrosis, urinating on their legs and feet to stay cool. Vulture urine also kills bacteria or parasites picked up from carcasses.
Old world vultures are very vocal, making grunts, chatter, screeches and croaks. New world vultures can only make hissing and grunting sounds.
Vultures can be solitary birds or social birds. Groups of vultures often circle together looking for food sources from the sky above. Vultures have exceptional eyesight, able to spot a three-foot carcass from four miles away. When one vulture spots a carcass it begins to circle above, drawing the attention of other vultures. A group of vultures is called a committee, volt or venue. In flight, a flock of vultures is called a kettle. When feeding together, a group of vultures is called a wake.
Most vulture species mate for life. Vultures attract mates by soaring around each other. A male vulture will show off his flying skills by almost touching the female's wing tips. Old world vultures construct large stick platform nests on cliffs or in trees. New world vultures lay their eggs in bare scrapes in cavities in trees or cliffs. Female vultures lay 1 to 3 eggs, depending on the species. Vulture parents take turns incubating eggs and feeding baby vultures when they hatch. Chicks leave the nest or scrape in 2 to 3 months. They depend on their parents until they learn how to find food themselves.
Vultures vomit when threatened to deter predators and to make their bodies lighter to escape more easily. If the food is mostly undigested, the predator receives a free meal. If the food is mostly digested, the smelly substance deters predators and stings their eyes. Old world vultures also play dead when threatened.
Vultures can live up to 50 years in the wild.
THREATS TO VULTURES
Globally vultures are the most endangered type of birds. Some vultures are almost extinct and have declined by 99%. Nine species of vulture are critically endangered, three are endangered, and four are near threatened.
Poisoning from drugs, toxins and lead in carcasses is the largest threat to vultures. Vultures are also threatened by habitat loss, car collisions, wind turbines, electrical pylons, food loss and poaching. Vultures are often persecuted by farmers and ranchers who mistakenly believe vultures are a threat to livestock.
Octopuses
7 Apr, 2024
The octopus is a cephalopod of the order Octopoda that inhabits many diverse regions of the ocean, especially coral reefs. The term may also refer to only those creatures in the genus Octopus. In the larger sense, there are 289 different octopus species, which is over one-third the total number of cephalopod species.
Octopuses are characterized by their eight arms (not tentacles), usually bearing suction cups. Unlike most other cephalopods, the majority of octopuses have almost entirely soft bodies with no internal skeleton. They have neither a protective outer shell, nor an internal shell or bones, like cuttlefish or squids. A beak, similar in shape to a parrot's beak, is their only hard part. This enables them to squeeze through very narrow slits between underwater rocks, which is very helpful when they are fleeing from morays or other predatory fish. The octopuses in the less familiar Cirrata suborder, however, have two fins and an internal shell...generally lessening their ability to squeeze into small spaces.
Octopuses have a relatively short life span, and some species live for as little as six months. Larger species, such as the North Pacific giant octopus, may live for up to five years under suitable circumstances. However, reproduction is a cause of death: males can only live for a few months after mating, and females die shortly after their eggs hatch, for they neglect to eat during the (roughly) one month period spent taking care of their unhatched eggs.
Octopuses have three hearts. Two pump blood through each of the two gills, while the third pumps blood through the body. Octopus blood contains the copper-rich protein hemocyanin for transporting oxygen. Less efficient than the iron-rich hemoglobin of vertebrates, the hemocyanin is dissolved in the plasma instead of being bound in red blood cells and gives the blood a blue color. Octopuses draw water into their mantle cavity where it passes through its gills.
Three defensive mechanisms are typical of octopuses: ink sacs, camouflage and autotomising limbs. Most octopuses can eject a thick blackish ink in a large cloud to aid in escaping from predators. They also have specialized skin cells, called chromatophores, for both color changing and light reflection and refraction. They use this ability to blend into the environment to hide, communicate with or warn other octopuses. The very poisonous Blue-ringed octopus becomes bright yellow with blue rings when it is provoked. When under attack, some octopuses can autotomise their limbs, in a similar manner to skinks and other lizards. The crawling arm serves as a distraction to would-be predators; this ability is also used in mating. A few species, such as the Mimic octopus, have a fourth defense mechanism. They can combine their highly flexible bodies with their color changing ability to accurately mimic other, more dangerous animals such as lionfish and eels.
When octopuses reproduce, males use a specialized arm called a hectocotylus to insert spermatophores (packets of sperm) into the female's mantle cavity. The hectocotylus is usually the third right arm. In some species, the female octopus can keep the sperm alive inside her for weeks until her eggs are mature. After they have been fertilized, the female lays roughly 200,000 eggs (this figure dramatically varies between families, genera, species and also individuals). The female hangs these eggs in strings from the ceiling of her lair, or individually attached to the substratum depending on the species. After the eggs hatch, the young larval octopuses must spend a period of time drifting in clouds of plankton, where they feed on copepods, larval crabs and larval seastars until they are ready to sink down to the bottom of the ocean, where the cycle repeats itself. In some deeper dwelling species, the young do not go through this period. This is a dangerous time for the octopuses; as they become part of the plankton cloud they are vulnerable to many plankton eaters.
Octopuses are highly intelligent. Maze and problem-solving experiments show that they have both short and long term memory. An octopus has a highly complex nervous system, only part of which is localized in its brain. Two-thirds of an octopus's neurons are found in the nerve cords of its arms, which have a remarkable amount of autonomy. Octopus arms show a wide variety of complex reflex actions arising on at least three different levels of the nervous system. Some octopuses, such as the mimic octopus, will move their arms in ways that emulate the movements of other sea creatures. Octopuses can be readily trained to distinguish between different shapes and patterns. They are able to open jars after learning from observation. Octopuses have also been observed in what may be described as play; repeatedly releasing bottles or toys into a circular current in their aquariums and then catching them. Octopuses often break out of their aquariums and sometimes into others in search of food. They have even boarded fishing ships and opened holds to eat crabs.
Octopuses have keen eyesight. Although their slit-shaped pupils might be expected to afflict them with astigmatism, it appears that this is not a problem in the light levels in which an octopus typically hunts. Surprisingly, they do not appear to have color vision, although they can distinguish the polarization of light. Attached to the brain are two special organs, called statocysts, that allow the octopus to sense the orientation of its body relative to horizontal. An autonomic response keeps the octopus's eyes oriented so that the pupil slit is always horizontal. Octopuses also have an excellent sense of touch. The octopus's suckers are equipped with chemoreceptors so that the octopus can taste what it is touching. The arms contain tension sensors so that the octopus knows whether its arms are stretched out.
Octopuses move about by crawling or swimming. Their main means of slow travel is crawling, with some swimming. Their only means of fast travel is swimming. Their fastest movements only occur when provoked by hunger or if in danger. They crawl by walking on their arms, usually on many at once, on solid surfaces, while supported in water. They swim by expelling a jet of water from a contractile mantle, and aiming it via a muscular siphon.
THREATS TO OCTOPUSES
The octopus faces such threats as polluted water, as well as diminishing resources due to environmental exploitation.
Octopuses are threatened by the exotic pet trade. They are difficult to keep in captivity. They often escape even from supposedly secure tanks, due to their problem-solving skills, mobility and lack of rigid structure. Every year, a variety of sources provides millions of animals to the exotic pet trade. Animals are captured from their native habitat and transported to various countries to be sold as “pets”. Others are surplus animals from zoos or their offspring. Backyard breeders also supply exotic animals. The sellers of these animals often disregard state or local laws regulating private possession of exotics, and the dangers, difficulties, physical and physiological needs of the animals they peddle. The suffering of the animals in the hands of unqualified and hapless buyers appears to be of no concern in the lucrative exotic pet trade.
Octopuses are also victims of the animal entertainment industry. The use of these wild animals as entertainment in aquariums removes them from their natural habitat; depriving them of the ability to freely engage in instinctual behaviors. Both children and adults are desensitized to animal mistreatment by the animal entertainment industry. Even under the best of circumstances, captivity is cruel for wild animals. Confined to tiny enclosures and gawked at by crowds, animals in exhibits and acts endure constant stress. Without exercise, they become listless, their immune systems are weakened, and they become prone to sickness; many resort to self-mutilation in reaction to stress or boredom. Mental illness is rampant among confined animals. Torn from their families and deprived of all dignity, every part of their lives is controlled by their captors. While zoos and aquariums may appear to be educational and conservation-oriented, most are designed with the needs and desires of the visitors in mind, not the needs of the animals.
Elk
6 Apr, 2024
The elk, or wapiti, is one of the largest species of deer in the world and one of the largest land mammals in North America and Eastern Asia. In the deer family, only the larger moose, which is called an "elk" in Europe, and the sambar rival the elk in size. Elk are similar to the red deer found in Europe. Elk range in forest and forest-edge habitat, feeding on grasses, plants, leaves and bark. Although native to North America and Eastern Asia, they have adapted well to countries where they have been introduced, including Argentina, Australia and New Zealand.
Male elk have large antlers which are shed each year. Males also engage in ritualized mating behaviors, including posturing, antler wrestling (sparring), and bugling - a loud series of vocalizations which establishes dominance over other males and attracts females.
Elk are susceptible to a number of infectious diseases, some of which can be transmitted to livestock. Efforts to eliminate infectious diseases from elk populations, largely through vaccination, have had mixed success.
Adult elk usually stay in single-sex groups for most of the year. During the mating period, known as the rut, mature bulls compete for the attentions of the cows and will try to defend females in their harem. Rival bulls challenge opponents by bellowing and by paralleling each other, walking back and forth. This allows potential combatants to assess the other's antlers, body size and fighting prowess. If neither bull backs down, they engage in antler wrestling, and bulls sometimes sustain serious injuries. Bulls also dig holes in the ground, in which they urinate and roll their body. The urine soaks into their hair and gives them a distinct smell which attracts cows. Dominant bulls follow groups of cows during the rut, from August into early winter. A bull will defend his harem of 20 cows or more from competing bulls and predators. Only mature bulls have large harems and breeding success peaks at about eight years of age. Bulls between two to four years and over 11 years of age rarely have harems, and spend most of the rut on the periphery of larger harems. A bull with a harem rarely feeds and he may lose up to 20 percent of his body weight. Bulls that enter the rut in poor condition are less likely to make it through to the peak conception period or have the strength to survive the rigors of the oncoming winter.
Bulls have a loud vocalization consisting of screams known as bugling, which can be heard for miles. Bugling is often associated with an adaptation to open environments such as parklands, meadows, and savannas, where sound can travel great distances. Females are attracted to the males that bugle more often and have the loudest call. Bugling is most common early and late in the day, and is one of the most distinctive sounds in nature, akin to the howl of the gray wolf.
Female elk have a short estrus cycle of only a day or two, and matings usually involve a dozen or more attempts. By the autumn of their second year, females can produce one and, very rarely, two offspring. Gestation period is 240 to 262 days and the offspring weigh between 33 and 35 lb. When the females are near to giving birth, they tend to isolate themselves from the main herd, and will remain isolated until the calf is large enough to escape predators. Calves are born spotted, as is common with many deer species, and they lose their spots by the end of summer. Manchurian wapiti may retain a few orange spots on the back of their summer coats until they are older. After two weeks, calves are able to join the herd, and are fully weaned at two months of age. Elk calves are as large as an adult white-tailed deer by the time they are six months old. The offspring will remain with their mothers for almost a year, leaving about the time that the next season's offspring are produced. The gestation period is the same for all subspecies. Elk live 10 to 20 years.
Wolf and coyote packs and the solitary cougar are the most common elk predators, although brown and black bears also prey on elk. Coyote packs mostly prey on elk calves, though they can sometimes take a winter-weakened adult. Major predators in Asia include the wolf, dhole, brown bear, Siberian tiger, Amur leopard, and snow leopard. Eurasian lynx and wild boar sometimes prey on Asian elk calves. Historically, tigers in the Lake Baikal region fed on Manchurian wapiti, and continue to do so in the Amur region.
Male elk retain their antlers for more than half the year and are less likely to group with other males when they have antlers. Antlers provide a means of defense, as does a strong front-leg kick, which is performed by either sex if provoked. Once the antlers have been shed, bulls tend to form bachelor groups which allow them to work cooperatively at fending off predators. Herds tend to employ one or more scouts while the remaining members eat and rest. After the rut, females form large herds of up to 50 individuals. Newborn calves are kept close by a series of vocalizations; larger nurseries have an ongoing and constant chatter during the daytime hours. When approached by predators, the largest and most robust females may make a stand, using their front legs to kick at their attackers. Guttural grunts and posturing effectively deter all but the most determined predators.
As is true for many species of deer, especially those in mountainous regions, elk migrate into areas of higher altitude in the spring, following the retreating snows, and the opposite direction in the fall. During the winter, they favor wooded areas and sheltered valleys for protection from the wind and availability of tree bark to eat. Roosevelt elk are generally non-migratory due to less seasonal variability of food sources.
Elk are ruminants and therefore have four-chambered stomachs. Unlike white-tailed deer and moose which are primarily browsers, elk have a similarity to cattle as they are primarily grazers, but like other deer, they also browse. Elk have a tendency to do most of their feeding in the mornings and evenings, seeking sheltered areas in between feedings to digest. Their diets vary somewhat depending on the season with native grasses being a year round supplement, tree bark being consumed in winter and forbs and tree sprouts during the summer. Elk consume an average of 20 lb of various foodstuffs daily.
THREATS TO ELK
Elk once lived throughout most of the United States and Canada, but the species range has dwindled drastically due to hunting and land development. Human development and encroachment, as well as habitat degradation and invasive noxious weeds, continue to threaten elk.
In the 19th century, ranchers frequently shot elk to reduce competition with livestock, wiping out elk populations in many areas. Elk have been re-introduced in many states, but mismanagement efforts intensity damage to agriculture leading to conflicts. Elk reintroduction programs are often more about reestablishing hunt-able populations, than preservation. Elk are an increasingly popular "game animal".
Elk are held in captivity for inhumane canned hunts, private trophy hunting facilities that offer their customers the opportunity to kill exotic and native animals trapped within enclosures. Some facilities have even allowed their clients to kill animals remotely via the Internet. These animals are frequently hand-raised and bottle-fed, so they have lost their natural fear of people. In many facilities, the animals expect to be fed at regular times by familiar people - a setup that guarantees a kill for trophy hunters. Inhumane captive hunting is reviled by both non-hunters and hunters.
Bobcats
5 Apr, 2024
Elusive-seeming felines that often appear as characters in various American indigenous legends, bobcats are nevertheless well known members of the Felidae family, found exclusively in North America. The bobcat’s thirteen member subspecies have a wide range over the continent, found from the southern parts of Canada to Central Mexico. These smaller wild cats can adapt to life in many different types of habitats, from forested areas to wet swampland, and from arid semi-desert to the more populated edges of urban centers. Despite their wild nature, these are some pretty adaptable felines.
While many people confuse bobcats with their close Lynx cousins, there are some fairly obvious differences that separate the two. Bobcats are generally smaller than lynx, ranging anywhere from 47.5 to 125 cm (18.7 to 49.2 in) long and about 30 to 60 cm (12 to 24 in) at the shoulders, but they can range in size depending on where they live. Eastern Canadian bobcats are generally the largest bobcat subspecies. Bobcats have a smaller neck ruff than the larger Canadian lynx as well as a smaller paw circumference and less thickly furred feet, which makes it more difficult for them to thrive in areas that receive a large amount of snowfall.
Male bobcats also tend to outweigh females, with an average weight of around 21lb compared to 15 lb. A bobcat’s soft, dense coat is also ideal for stealthy camouflage and insulation from colder weather. Typically a tan to grey-brown in color, they also have darker spots over their body and black or brown bars on their front legs, with white markings on their chin and underbelly. Their distinctive, stubby tail is characteristic to these cats, and is what actually gives the bobcat its name. On average, bobcats tend to live up to age seven in the wild, although the oldest captive on record lived an astounding thirty two years.
These sleek and muscular predators have a physiology that’s perfect for stalking and hunting, with longer, more powerful hind legs that allow the bobcat to bound efficiently after their prey and eyes with large round pupils that can expand to let in the maximum amount of light possible. Besides having excellent senses of smell and hearing, they also have sharp vision that can easily track the rapid movements made by other animals. They’re excellent climbers and surprisingly talented swimmers, though like many cats they prefer to avoid the water if at all possible. Their diet preferences tend to swing towards rabbits or hares, but they’re not tremendously picky either, eating anything that’s available – from insects to geese, swans and cranes, to smaller rodents, dogs, cats, foxes, young deer and even small sharks. They can also survive for long periods of time without food, gorging when they do hunt successfully, and burying larger kills so that they can return and feed on them again and again.
Like many other cat species, bobcats are crepuscular, meaning that they’re most active in the early evening and early morning. They tend to remain in well-defined home territories, travelling anywhere from 2 to 7 miles along their regular routes each night to find prey and mark their territory anew with feces, urine and claw marks. Bobcats are also masters of the contingency plan as well; although they tend to have a main den, they’ll also have several other shelters on the outer limits of their range, usually in logs, brush piles, or under rock ledges. The bobcat’s range can also vary depending on season, age, sex and species. Many males have significantly larger territories, while some female bobcats expand their home ranges in colder weather to find mates. Bobcats typically tend to prefer solitary living, but their ranges will often overlap, with two or more female territories often found within one male’s domain.
Breeding season for bobcats generally happens in the early spring, with females entering sexual maturity by their second year. A male will usually travel with a female and mate with her several times over a period of weeks or months, but bobcats are not truly monogamous. Both males and females often go on to mate with other partners, even within the same season. Kittens, helpless and blind at birth, are mostly born in late spring after a gestation of around 60 to 70 days, with litter sizes that range from two to four in size. The mother raises her kittens alone in a den (often a small cave or hollow log), weaning them around two months of age and keeping them with her for the first four to six months, though some species of bobcat kittens will stay with the female up to one year later.
In spite of their place near the top of the food chain, bobcats can still be at risk from other, larger predators. Cougars, wolves and coyotes will kill bobcats of any age, while owls, eagles and foxes find bobcat kittens to be easier prey. Young bobcats have a higher rate of injury or death in the period just after they leave their mother, since many of them succumb to disease, accidents, and even starvation as they’re still perfecting their own hunting skills.
THREATS TO BOBCATS
Threats to bobcats include hunting, trapping and being kept in captivity for human entertainment. In Mexico, bobcats are persecuted as a sheep predator and are frequently killed by farmers. Bobcats are hunted and inhumanely trapped for their fur throughout much of their range.
Even under the best of circumstances, captivity is cruel for bobcats. Confined to tiny cages and gawked at by crowds, animals in exhibits and acts endure constant stress. They may suffer from temperature extremes and irregular feeding and watering. Without exercise, they become listless, their immune systems are weakened, and they become prone to sickness; many resort to self-mutilation in reaction to stress or boredom. Mental illness is rampant among confined animals. Torn from their families and deprived of all dignity, every part of their lives is controlled by their captors.
While zoos and aquariums may appear to be educational and conservation-oriented, most are designed with the needs and desires of the visitors in mind, not the needs of the animals. Many animals in zoos and aquariums exhibit abnormal behavior as a result of being deprived of their natural environments and social structures. When the facility breeds too many animals they become "surplus" and often are sold to laboratories, traveling shows, shooting ranches, or to private individuals who may be unqualified to care for them.
Tasmanian Devils
4 Apr, 2024
The Tasmanian devil (Sarcophilus harrisii) is a carnivorous marsupial of the family Dasyuridae, now found in the wild only on the Australian island state of Tasmania. The size of a small dog, they became the largest carnivorous marsupials in the world following the extinction of the thylacine in 1936. They are characterized by their stocky and muscular build, black fur, pungent odor, extremely loud and disturbing screech, keen sense of smell, and ferocity when feeding.
The Tasmanian devil's large head and neck allow it to generate one of the strongest bites of any land mammal predator, and it hunts prey and scavenges carrion as well as eating household products if humans are living nearby. Although they usually are solitary, they sometimes eat with other devils and defecates in a communal location. Unlike most other dasyurids, the devil thermoregulates effectively and is active during the middle of the day without overheating. Despite its rotund appearance, the devil is capable of surprising speed and endurance, and can climb trees and swim across rivers.
Devils are not monogamous, and their reproductive process is very robust and competitive. Males fight one another for the females, and then guard their partners to prevent female infidelity. Females can ovulate three times in as many weeks during the mating season, and 80% of two-year-old females are seen to be pregnant during the annual mating season. Females average four breeding seasons in their life and give birth to 20 to 30 live young after a three week gestation. The newborn are pink, lack fur, have indistinct facial features and weigh around 0.0071 oz at birth. As there are only four nipples in the pouch, competition is fierce and few newborns survive. The young grow rapidly and are ejected from the pouch after around 100 days, weighing roughly 7.1 oz.
After being ejected, the devils stay outside the pouch, but they remain in the den for around another three months, first venturing outside the den between October and December before becoming independent in January. During this transitional phase out of the pouch, the young devils are relatively safe from predation as they are generally accompanied. When the mother is hunting they can stay inside a shelter or come along, often riding on their mother's back. During this time they continue to drink their mother's milk.
The young become independent after around nine months, so the female spends most of her year in activities related to childbirth and rearing. Devils are fully grown at two years of age, and few devils live longer than five years in the wild.
The devil stores body fat in its tail, and healthy devils have fat tails. The tail is important to its physiology, social behavior and locomotion. It acts as a counterbalance to aid stability when the devil is moving quickly. A scent gland at the base of its tail is used to mark the ground behind the animal with its strong, pungent scent. The devil has long claws that allow it to dig burrows, seek subterranean food easily and grip prey or mates strongly.
Devils have long whiskers on their face and in clumps on the top of the head. These help the devil locate prey when foraging in the dark, and aid in detecting when other devils are close during feeding. The whiskers can extend from the tip of the chin to the rear of the jaw and can cover the span of its shoulder. Hearing is their dominant sense, and they also have an excellent sense of smell.
Devils prefer open forest to tall forest, and dry rather than wet forests. Young devils can climb trees, but this becomes more difficult as they grow larger. Tasmanian devils do not form packs, but rather spend most of their time alone once weaned. They are considered to be non-territorial in general, but females are territorial around their dens. Tasmanian devils occupy a home range.
Devils use three or four dens regularly. Dens formerly owned by wombats are especially prized as maternity dens because of their security. Dense vegetation near creeks, thick grass tussocks and caves are also used as dens. Adult devils use the same dens for life. It is believed that, as a secure den is highly prized, some may have been used for several centuries by generations of animals.
On average, devils eat about 15% of their body weight each day, although they can eat up to 40% of their body weight in 30 minutes if the opportunity arises. Eating is a social event for the Tasmanian devil. This combination of a solitary animal that eats communally makes the devil unique among carnivores. Much of the noise attributed to the animal is a result of raucous communal eating, at which up to 12 individuals can gather, although groups of two to five are common. This has been interpreted as notifications to colleagues to share in the meal, so that food is not wasted by rot and energy is saved. The amount of noise is correlated to the size of the carcass.
Devils eat in accordance with a system. Juveniles are active at dusk, so they tend to reach the source before the adults. Typically, the dominant animal eats until it is satiated and leaves, fighting off any challengers in the meantime. Defeated animals run into the bush with their hair and tail erect, their conqueror in pursuit and biting their victim's rear where possible. Disputes are less common as the food source increases as the motive appears to be getting sufficient food rather than oppressing other devils.
Feeding devils exhibit twenty known physical postures, including their characteristic vicious yawn, and eleven different vocal sounds. They usually establish dominance by sound and physical posturing. The white patches on the devil are visible to the night-vision of its colleagues. Chemical gestures are also used. They can also stand on their hind legs and push each others shoulders with their front legs and heads, similar to sumo wrestling.
THREATS TO TASMANIAN DEVILS
Since the late 1990s, devil facial tumor disease has drastically reduced the devil population and now threatens the survival of the species, which in 2008 was declared to be endangered. Programs are currently being undertaken by the Government of Tasmania to reduce the impact of the disease, including an initiative to build up a group of healthy devils in captivity, isolated from the disease. While the thylacine was extant it preyed on the devil, which targeted young and unattended thylacine cubs in their dens.
Localized populations of devils have also been severely reduced by collisions with motor vehicles, particularly when they are eating roadkill.
Due to export restrictions and the failure of overseas devils to breed, there are almost no devils outside Australia except for any that have been illegally smuggled.
Orangutans
3 Apr, 2024
Orangutans have thin, shaggy, reddish-brown hair. They have long, powerful arms and strong hands that they can use to manipulate tools. Orangutans have the ability to make 13 to 15 different types of vocalizations.
Most orangutans are four to five feet long, some can reach a length of six feet. Adult males weigh between 100 and 260 pounds and adult females weigh between 65 and 100 pounds. Orangutans have an arm spread of about five feet.
Orangutans are only found on the islands of Sumatra and Borneo in Southeast Asia. An estimated 19,000 to 25,000 orangutans live in the wild. Another 900 live in captivity. In the wild, orangutans live for about 35 to 40 years.
Orangutans are arboreal creatures, which means they spend most of their lives slowly walking, swinging and climbing through dense rain forests. Orangutans feed mainly on fruits, especially wild figs. They also eat other kinds of vegetation, insects, small vertebrates and birds eggs.
Orangutans are solitary creatures. Adult males live primarily alone and only come together with females to mate. Adult females live with their young. Occasionally, adults will live with other adults for short periods in small temporary groups.
Orangutans spend most of their lives in a "home range" of 0.4 to 3.7 square miles. Females have a smaller home range than males. Sometimes the home ranges of individual orangutans overlap.
Females are able to give birth after age seven, but in the wild they generally do not mate until age 12. They give birth to one young at a time, which clings to its mother’s stomach until it is about a year old. When an orangutan reaches adolescence at about four or five years, it becomes more independent but may seek protection from its mother until it reaches seven to eight years.
THREATS TO ORANGUTANS
The orangutan’s most serious threat is the destruction of forest habitat from excessive logging. Orangutans are highly endangered in the wild. Orangutan habitat destruction due to logging, mining and forest fires has been increasing rapidly in the last decade. Much of this activity is illegal, occurring in national parks that are officially off limits to loggers, miners and plantation development. There is also a major problem with the illegal trapping of baby orangutans for sale into the pet trade; the trappers usually kill the mother to steal the baby.
Female orangutans are also killed and their young are taken and illegally placed in circuses and zoos. Even under the best of circumstances, captivity is cruel for orangutans. Confined to tiny cages and gawked at by crowds, animals in exhibits and acts endure constant stress. They may suffer from temperature extremes and irregular feeding and watering. Without exercise, they become listless, their immune systems are weakened, and they become prone to sickness; many resort to self-mutilation in reaction to stress or boredom. Mental illness is rampant among confined animals. Torn from their families and deprived of all dignity, every part of their lives is controlled by their captors.
Animals used in film, television, advertising or as sports mascots are ripped away from their mothers as infants. They are forced to spend most of their lives in small cages. They often live alone, resulting in severe psychological anxiety. “Performing” is stressful, confusing and often torturous. Training methods may involve beating the animals, causing them to be constantly anxious and fearful. When the animals become too large to handle, they are often dumped at shoddy roadside zoos and other substandard facilities, where they spend the rest of their lives in small, barren cages—many in solitary confinement. “Retirement” from entertainment is a long life of misery for these highly intelligent and sensitive animals. The American Humane Association’s (AHA) “No Animals Were Harmed” seal of approval is extremely misleading. AHA does not monitor living conditions of animals off set, during pre-production training, or during the premature separation of infants from their mothers.
While zoos and aquariums may appear to be educational and conservation-oriented, most are designed with the needs and desires of the visitors in mind, not the needs of the animals. Many animals in zoos and aquariums exhibit abnormal behavior as a result of being deprived of their natural environments and social structures. When the facility breeds too many animals they become "surplus" and often are sold to laboratories, traveling shows, shooting ranches, or to private individuals who may be unqualified to care for them.
Wolves
2 Apr, 2024
The wolf is the largest wild member of the canine family. On average, wolves stand 26 to 32 inches at the shoulder and weigh 55 to 115 pounds. Females are usually slightly smaller than males. They range in color from grizzled gray or black to all white.
Wolves are built for stamina, possessing features tailored for long distance travel. Narrow chests and powerful backs and legs contribute to the wolf's proficiency for efficient locomotion. They are capable of covering several miles trotting at about a 6 mph pace, though they have been known to reach speeds approaching 40 mph during a chase.
Gray wolves are listed as endangered in the Southwest under the Endangered Species Act (ESA) and threatened throughout the lower 48 states. Wolves in Alaska are not listed under the ESA. Endangered means a species is considered in danger of extinction throughout all or a significant portion of its range, and threatened means a species may become endangered in the foreseeable future. Regions of Yellowstone, central Idaho and the Southwest are designated as non-essential experimental populations, which isolate geographically-described groups from other existing populations and offer special regulations.
Wolves live up to 12 years. They can be found in forests, and on tundra, deserts, plains and mountains. They normally prey on large hoofed mammals such as deer and elk, but occasionally prey on smaller animals such as beavers or rabbits.
Wolves live in packs, which are complex social structures that include the breeding adult pair (the alpha male and female) and their offspring. A hierarchy of dominant and subordinate animals within the pack help it to function as a unit. The pack is led by the two individuals that sit atop the social hierarchy — the alpha male and the alpha female. The alpha pair (of whom only one may be the "top" alpha) has the greatest amount of social freedom compared to the rest of the pack, but they are not "leaders" in the human sense of the term. The alphas do not give the other wolves orders; rather, they simply have the most freedom in choosing where to go, what to do, and when to do it. Possessing strong instincts for fellowship, the rest of the pack usually follows.
Wolves communicate by scent-marking, vocalizing (including howling), facial expressions and body postures. They can visually communicate an impressive variety of expressions and moods that range from subtler signals – such as a slight shift in weight – to the more obvious ones – like rolling on the back as a sign of complete submission.
Wolves howl for several reasons. Howling helps pack members keep in touch, allowing them to effectively communicate in thickly forested areas or over great distances. Furthermore, howling helps to summon pack members to a specific location. Howling can also serve as a declaration of territory, as portrayed by a dominant wolf's tendency to respond to a human imitation of a "rival" individual in an area that the wolf considers its own. This behavior is also stimulated when a pack has something to protect, such as a fresh kill. Wolves will also howl for communal reasons—similar to community singing among humans.
Usually, only the alpha pair is able to successfully rear a litter of pups (other wolves in a pack may breed, but will usually lack the resources required to raise the pups to maturity). They mate in January or February. Females give birth two months later to a litter of pups. An average litter is four to seven pups. All the wolves in the pack assist in raising wolf pups. Some mature individuals, usually females, may choose to stay in the original pack so as to reinforce it and help rear more pups. Most, males particularly, will disperse however.
The size of the pack may change over time and is controlled by several factors, including habitat, personalities of individual wolves within a pack, and food supply. Packs can contain between two and twenty wolves, though an average pack consists of six or seven. New packs are formed when a wolf leaves its birth pack and claims a territory. Lone wolves searching for other individuals can travel very long distances seeking out suitable territories.
Wolves, like other canines, use scent marking to lay claim to anything from territory to fresh kills.
THREATS TO WOLVES
The illegal killing of wolves has become a leading threat to their survival. Another serious problem is human encroachment into wolf territory, which leads to habitat loss for wolves. As long as there is enough prey, wolves seem to avoid taking livestock, often ignoring them entirely. However, some wolves or packs can specialize in hunting livestock once the behavior is learned. In some areas across the world, hunters or state officials will hunt wolves from helicopters or light planes to "control" populations (or, in some instances, for sport), claiming it is the most effective way to control wolf numbers. Wolves are frequently trapped, in the areas where it is legal, using inhumane snares or leg hold traps. The economic value of wolf pelts is limited, so it is mainly a recreation activity. Wolf trapping has come under heavy fire from animal rights groups. Wolves are also inhumanely bred for their fur in some locations.
Walruses
1 Apr, 2024
Walrus, a marine mammal, Odobenus rosmarus, is found in Arctic seas. It is the largest of the fin-footed mammals, or pinnipeds. The walrus is also distinguished by its long tusks and by cheek pads bearing quill-like bristles. Adult males are 10 feet long or more, and weigh up to 3,000 lb; females weigh about two thirds as much as males. The tusks, which are elongated upper canine teeth, may reach a length of 3 feet in large males and weigh over 10 lb. The hide is very thick and wrinkled, and is light brown and nearly hairless. Beneath the hide is a layer of fat several inches thick.
Like sea lions, walruses can turn their hind flippers forward for walking on land; their foreflippers are weaker than those of sea lions and they are not as strong swimmers. They live in shallow water and spend much of the time on ice floes and beaches, where they congregate in herds of about 100 animals of both sexes. They can dive to a depth of 240 feet to find food, relying primarily on touch; their diet consists chiefly of shellfish, especially mollusks.
The cheek teeth of walruses are rounded and are used for crushing shells. Walruses use their tusks for prying shellfish from the ocean floor, as well as for pulling themselves up onto ice floes. The herds tend to follow the ice line, moving south in winter and north in summer.
Walruses mate in the water and give birth on land or ice floes. Male walruses compete for territory, often fighting each other; the winners in these fights breed with large numbers of females. Older male walruses frequently bear large scars from these bloody but rarely fatal battles. Walruses have been known to kill polar bears.
Pacific walruses spend the summer north of the Bering Strait in the Chukchi Sea along the north shore of eastern Siberia, around Wrangel Island, in the Beaufort Sea along the north shore of Alaska, and in the waters between those locations. Smaller numbers of males summer in the Gulf of Anadyr on the south shore of the Chukchi Peninsula of Siberia and in Bristol Bay off the south shore of southern Alaska west of the Alaska Peninsula. In the spring and fall they congregate in the Bering Strait, adjacent to the west shores of Alaska, and in the Gulf of Anadyr. They winter to the south in the Bering Sea along the eastern shore of Siberia south to the northern part of the Kamchatka Peninsula, and along the southern shore of Alaska.
Walruses have a breeding season in mid winter, a time spent in the southern Bering sea. The males show off in the water for the females who view them from pack ice. Males compete with each other aggressively for this display space. Mating usually takes place in the water. After fertilization the fertilized egg remains dormant for several months, and then a gestation period of 11 months follows. When a calf is born it is over 3 feet long and able to swim. Birth takes place on the pack ice; the calf nurses for about 2 years, spending 3 to 5 years with its mother. Females mature at about 6 years, males at 9 or 10. A walrus lives about 50 years.
Walruses spend about half their time in the water and half their time on beaches or ice floes where they gather in large herds. They may spend several days at a stretch either on land or in the sea. In the sea they sometimes catch fish but generally graze along the sea bottom for clams which they suck from their shells. Abrasion patterns of the tusks show that they are dragged through the sediment, but are not used to dig up prey. They can also spit jets of water to look for clams. Walruses have been observed to attack narwhal and seals if they cannot find any other food source. This has mainly been observed in large males and the ingestion of seal flesh causes their blubber to appear "greasy".
There are two walrus races, the Atlantic and the Pacific. The Atlantic race, formerly found as far South as Nova Scotia and occasionally Massachusetts, is now considered endangered. The walrus's nearest living relatives are the fur seals, with which it evolved from bearlike ancestors, the Enaliarctidae, in the North Pacific Ocean about 20 million years ago. Walruses are classified in the phylum Chordata, subphylum Vertebrata, class Mammalia, order Carnivora, suborder Pinnipedia, family Odobenidae.
THREATS TO WALRUSES
The Eskimo hunt walruses for food and clothing; the introduction of firearms greatly increased the size of the kill. Commercial hunting of walruses for blubber, hides, and ivory has been extensive since the 16th century and has greatly reduced the walrus population. Several nations now have protective laws; Canada and Russia prohibit walrus hunting except by peoples for whom it is a traditional part of the economy.
Walruses are common victims of the animal entertainment industry. Aquariums and marine mammal theme parks are part of a billion-dollar industry built on the suffering of intelligent, social beings who are denied everything that is natural and important to them. Animals are taken from the wild; their families torn apart.
Marine parks have shown no more interest in conserving marine mammals' natural habitats than they have in educating audiences. Cetaceans do not belong in captivity where they are forced to perform meaningless tricks. They are often separated from family members when they’re shuffled between parks. Most die far short of their natural life spans.
The living conditions at these attractions are often dismal, with animals confined to tiny, filthy, barren enclosures, but even the best artificial environments can’t come close to matching the space, diversity, and freedom that cetaceans have in their natural habitats.
Stingrays
25 Mar, 2024
Dasyatidae is a family of rays, cartilaginous marine fishes. Dasyatids are common in tropical coastal waters throughout the world, and there are fresh water species in Asia (Himantura sp.), Africa, and Florida (Dasyatis sabina).
Dasyatids swim with a "flying" motion, propelled by motion of their large pectoral fins (commonly referred to as "wings"). Their stinger is a razor-sharp, barbed or serrated cartilaginous spine which grows from the ray's whip-like tail (like a fingernail). It is coated with a toxic venom. This gives them their common name of stingrays.
Dasyatids do not attack aggressively, or even actively defend themselves. When threatened, their primary reaction is to swim away. However, when they are attacked by predators or stepped on, the barbed stinger in their tail is mechanically whipped up, usually into the offending foot; it is also possible, although less likely, to be stung "accidentally" by brushing against the stinger.
Contact with the stinger causes local trauma (from the cut itself), pain and swelling from the venom, and possible infection from parts of the stinger left in the wound, as well as from seawater entering the wound. It is possible for ray stings to be fatal if they sever major arteries, are in the chest or pelvic region, or are improperly treated. Their stingers are normally ineffective against their main predator, sharks.
Treatment for stings includes hot water (as hot as the victim can stand), which helps ease pain and break down the venom, and antibiotics. Pain normally lasts up to 48 hours but is most severe in the first 30-60 minutes and may be accompanied by nausea, fatigue, headaches, fever, and chills.
Like other rays, dasyatids are viviparous (bearing live young in litters of 5–13). When a male is courting a female, he will follow her closely, biting at her pectoral disc. He then places one of his two claspers into her valve. The female holds the embryos in the womb without a placenta. Instead, the embryos absorb nutrients from a yolk sac, and after the sac is depleted, the mother provides uterine "milk".
Since their eyes are on top of their head, and their mouths on the bottom, they cannot see their prey, and instead use their sense of smell and electro-receptors similar to those of the shark. They feed primarily on mollusks and crustaceans, as their mouths contain powerful, shell-crushing teeth, or occasionally on smaller fish. Rays settle on the bottom while feeding, sometimes leaving only the eyes and tail visible.
Dasyatids are not normally visible to swimmers, but divers and snorkelers may find them in shallow sandy waters; more so when the water is unseasonably warm.
THREATS TO DASYATIDS
Most dasyatids are neither threatened nor endangered. For several species (for example Taeniura meyeni, D. colarensis, D. garouaensis, and D. laosensis), conservation status is more problematic, leading to their being listed as vulnerable or endangered by IUCN. The status of several other species are poorly known, leading to their being listed as Data Deficient.
Dugongs
24 Mar, 2024
Dugongs are large marine mammals inhabiting warm ocean waters surrounding Australia and Indonesia. Most dugongs are concentrated around northern Australia, while they are also found throughout the Indo-Pacific tropics.
The legends of mermaids are believed to have originated when sailors viewed dugongs and manatees from a distance and mistakenly thought they were half-fish, half-human.
The dugong looks very similar to a manatee, and is very closely related, but the two are different species. Dugongs are smaller than manatees, about the size of a large cow. Tails of dugongs are usually forked like that of a shark, while the tails of manatees are broad and flat and look more flipper-like than fin-like. Dugongs are also closely related to elephants. Dugongs evolved millions of years ago when an elephant-like animal entered the water.
Male dugongs develop tusks between the ages of 12 and 15 years old. Females do not usually grow visible tusks.
Dugongs are strictly herbivorous animals, often called “cows of the sea”. Dugongs graze on aquatic plants and sea grasses growing in warm, shallow waters. Dugongs shake their heads to remove sand from their food. Since dugongs consume large amounts of sea plants, they frequently leave trails of bare sand and uprooted sea grass behind them.
Being mammals, dugongs needs to surface every six minutes to breathe atmospheric oxygen. They can also breathe by standing on their tails with their heads above the water.
Dugongs live on their own, in pairs or in communities. Dugongs use a variety of sounds to communicate with each other, including barks, chirp-squeaks and trills.
Female dugongs give birth to one baby approximately every five years. Baby dugongs are born underwater in the tropical shallows. Baby dugongs can swim immediately and surface the water to take their first breath. Mother and baby dugongs have a strong bond. Baby dugongs sometimes ride on their mother's back. Baby dugongs stay near their mothers until they are about 2 years old. Dugong calves reach full size at about 15 years old.
Dugongs live to be about 70 years old.
The main predators of dugongs are sharks, killer whales and crocodiles.
THREATS TO DUGONGS
Dugong populations have decreased dramatically due to chemical pollution, hunting, the commercial fishing industry and coastal development. While the dugong is now protected by law, their populations remain low due to slow reproduction. Dugongs are considered vulnerable to extinction due to hunting, pollution, boat collisions and getting caught in fishing nets.
Boobies
23 Mar, 2024
A booby is a seabird in the genus Sula, part of the Sulidae family. The bird family Sulidae also includes gannets. Collectively called sulids, they are medium-large coastal seabirds that plunge-dive for fish and similar prey. Sulids are distributed mainly in tropical and subtropical waters. Gannets are also found in temperate regions. They usually stay close to the coasts.
Sulids measure about 24 to 33 inches in length and have a wingspan of about 4.59 to 5.74 feet. They have long, narrow and pointed wings, and a quite long, graduated, lozenge-shaped tail with outer feathers shorter than the central ones. Their flight muscles are small to allow for the small cross section required for plunge-diving, and thus their wing loading is high. Consequently, they are very streamlined, reducing drag. Their bodies are "torpedo-shaped" as well as somewhat flat.
Boobies have stout legs and webbed feet, with the web connecting all four toes. In some species the webs are brightly colored and used in courtship displays. Booby bills are usually conspicuously colored, long, deep at the base, and pointed with saw-like edges. The upper mandible curves down slightly at the tip and can be moved upward to accept large prey. To keep water out during plunges, their nostrils enter into the bill rather than opening to the outside directly. Boobies eyes are angled forward, and provide a wider field of binocular vision than in most other birds.
The plumage of boobies is either all-white (or light brownish or greyish) with dark wingtips and tail, or at least some dark brown or black above with white underparts. Gannets have a yellowish hue to the head.
Booby faces usually have some sort of black markings. They have a well-developed preen gland whose waxy secretions they spread on their feathers for waterproofing and pest control. They moult their tail feathers irregularly, and molt their flight feathers in stages, so they always have some old feathers, some new feathers, and some partly grown feathers.
Different species of booby have their own uniquely distinguishable features. The different species of booby are the blue-footed booby, the red-footed booby, the Peruvian booby, the masked booby, the brown booby and the Nazca booby.
The blue-footed booby is easily recognizable by its distinctive bright blue feet, which can range in color from a pale turquoise to a deep aquamarine. Males and younger birds have lighter feet while females have darker feet. Their blue feet play a key role in courtship rituals and breeding, with the male visually displaying his feet to attract mates during the breeding season by stamping them on the ground in a dance-like fashion. The brightness of their feet decreases with age, so females tend to mate with younger males with brighter feet who have higher fertility and increased ability to provide paternal care than do older males.
The red-footed booby has bright, red feet that are a pinkish color when the booby is young. The Peruvian booby is not as elaborate in appearance as other booby species. The masked booby has a distinguishable black color around it's eyes and is the largest species of booby. The brown booby is a smaller booby and with a black head and back, a white belly, short wings and a long tail. The Nazca booby has a more rounded head than the other species of booby, with a white body and a beak that is yellow or orange.
Boobies hunt fish by diving from a height into the sea and pursuing their prey underwater. Facial air sacs under their skin cushion the impact with the water. All species feed entirely at sea, mostly on mid-sized fish and similarly-sized marine invertebrates. Many species feed communally, and some species follow fishing boats to scavenge discarded bycatch and chum. The typical hunting behavior is a dive from mid-air, taking the bird under water. If prey manages to escape the diving birds, they may give chase using their legs and wings for underwater swimming.
Before taking off, sulids will point their bills upwards (gannets) or forward (boobies). After landing again, they point downwards with the bill. In response to a threat they will not attack but shake their heads and point the bill towards the intruder.
Boobies are colonial breeders on islands and coasts. They normally lay one or more chalky-blue eggs on the ground or sometimes in a tree nest. Males examine the colony area in flight and then pick a nest site, which they defend by fighting and by territorial displays. Males then advertise to females by a special display and call. The display behavior typically includes the male shaking his head. Females search the colony in flight and on foot for a mate. Once they select males, pairs maintain their bonds by preening each other and by frequent copulation.
The clutch is typically two eggs. The eggs are unmarked (but may become stained by debris in the nest), whitish, pale blue, green or pink, and have a coating that resembles lime. Incubation lasts 42 to 55 days, depending on the species. Both sexes incubate; their feet become vascularized and hot, and the birds place the eggs under the webs. Eggs lost during the first half of incubation are replaced.
At hatching, parents move the eggs and then the hatchlings to the tops of their webs. The young hatch naked, but soon develop white down. They beg by touching the parent's bill and take regurgitated food straight from their gapes. At first at least one parent is always in attendance of the young; after two weeks, both parents leave the nest unguarded at times while they go fishing. The amount of time for the chicks to fledge and become independent of their parents depends greatly on the food supply.
Boobies communicate with grunts or shouts and whistling noises. The males of the species have been known to throw up their head and whistle at a passing, flying female. Mates can recognize each other by their calls.
THREATS TO BOOBIES
Boobies are threatened by habitat loss and egg collecting. Booby food sources are also over-fished by the commercial fishing industry.
Seals
22 Mar, 2024
Seals are carnivorous aquatic mammals with front and hind feet modified as flippers, or fin-feet. The name seal is sometimes applied broadly to any of the fin-footed mammals, or pinnipeds, including the walrus, the eared seals (sea lion and fur seal), and the true seals, also called earless seals, hair seals, or phocid seals. More narrowly the term is applied only to true seals.
Pinnipeds have streamlined bodies, rounded in the middle and tapered at the ends, with a thick layer of fat beneath the skin. Their limbs are short and their feet are long and webbed, forming flippers. Sea lions, fur seals and the walrus are able to turn their hind flippers forward for walking on land; they swim chiefly by a rowing action of the long front flippers. True seals are unable to rotate the hind flippers. They progress on land by wriggling on their bellies, pulling themselves with the short front flippers. In the water they are propelled by a side-to-side sweeping action of the hind flippers.
True seals are called earless seals because they lack external ears, though they have functional inner ears. They have short, coarse hair, usually with a close, dense undercoat. Their color and pattern vary with the species. Many are spotted. The pups of most species have fluffy coats of a light color. True seals are generally polygamous and gregarious, but most do not form harems at breeding time, as do the eared seals. Some species have definite migrations, but in most the seals spread out after breeding, singly or in groups, over a wide area of ocean. Some polar species migrate in winter to avoid the advancing ice; members of other species winter under the ice, surfacing through holes to breathe. Most true seal species fall into one of three geographical groups: northern, antarctic and warm-water species.
Nearly all pinnipeds are marine, and most inhabit cold or temperate regions. They have an amphibious lifestyle, spending most of their lives in the water but hauling out to mate, raise young, molt, rest, thermoregulate or escape from aquatic predators. Some spend most of the year in the open ocean, while others inhabit coastal waters and spend varying amounts of time on shores, islands or ice floes. Occasionally they ascend rivers.
All pinnipeds leave the water at least once a year, at breeding time. In nearly all species the females give birth a year after mating, so that the births take place on land, just before breeding begins. The pups are nursed on land.
Some species spend most of the year far from their breeding grounds. Several species are known to migrate vast distances. The northern fur seals make particularly lengthy migrations each year. Traveling seals may use various features of their environment to reach their destination including geomagnetic fields, water and wind currents, the position of the sun and moon and the taste and temperature of the water.
Pinnipeds have lifespans averaging 25–30 years. Females usually live longer, as males tend to fight and often die before reaching maturity. The longest recorded lifespans include 43 years for a wild female ringed seal and 46 years for a wild female grey seal. The age at which a pinniped sexually matures can vary from 2–12 years depending on the species. Females typically mature earlier than males.
All pinnipeds are carnivorous and predatory. Most have diets of fish and shellfish; many are bottom feeders, with physiological adaptations for deep diving. They have acute hearing and some, if not all, make use of echolocation (sonar) for underwater navigation. Pinnipeds may hunt solitarily or cooperatively. Though they can drink seawater, they get most of their fluid intake from the food they eat.
Pinnipeds themselves are subject to predation. Most species are preyed on by orcas. They are also targeted by terrestrial predators, including polar bears, bears, cougars, hyenas and various species of canids. Pinnipeds lessen the chance of predation by gathering in groups.
The mating system of pinnipeds varies from extreme polygyny to serial monogamy. Of the 33 species, 20 breed on land, and the remaining 13 breed on ice. Species that breed on land are usually polygynous, as females gather in large aggregations and males are able to mate with them as well as defend them from rivals. Land-breeding pinnipeds tend to mate on islands where there are fewer terrestrial predators. Few islands are favorable for breeding, and those that are tend to be crowded. Since the land they breed on is fixed, females return to the same sites for many years. The males arrive earlier in the season and wait for them. The males stay on land and try to mate with as many females as they can; some of them will even fast. If a male leaves the beach to feed, he will likely lose mating opportunities and his dominance. Since ice is less stable then solid land, pinnipeds that breed on ice change location each year.
All species go through delayed implantation, where the embryo remains in suspended development for weeks or months before it is implanted in the uterus. Delayed implantation postpones the birth of young until the female hauls-out on land or until conditions for birthing are favorable. Gestation in seals (including delayed implantation) typically lasts a year. For most species, birthing takes place in the spring and summer months. Typically, single pups are born; twins are uncommon and have high mortality rates.
Mother pinnipeds have different strategies for maternal care and lactation. Some seals remain on land or ice and fast during their relatively short lactation period–four days for the hooded seal and five weeks for elephant seals. The milk of these species consist of up to 60% fat, allowing the young to grow fairly quickly. Some, like the harbor seal, fast and nurse their pups for a few days at a time. In between nursing bouts, the females leave their young onshore to forage at sea. These foraging trips may last anywhere from a day to two weeks, depending on the abundance of food and the distance of foraging sites. While their mothers are away, the pups will fast.
Pinnipeds communicate with a number of vocalizations such as barks, grunts, rasps, rattles, growls, creaks, warbles, trills, chirps, chugs, clicks and whistles. Vocals are produced both in air and underwater. Vocalizations are particularly important during the breeding seasons. Dominant male elephant seals advertise their status and threaten rivals with "clap-threats" and loud drum-like calls. In some pinniped species, there appear to be geographic differences in vocalizations, known as dialects.
Seals are able to demonstrate an understanding of symmetry, transitivity and equivalence. They demonstrate the ability to understand syntax and musical rhythms. Some have been trained to imitate human words, phrases and laughter.
THREATS TO SEALS
Each year thousands of seals are killed in Canada. Seal-clubbing is justified by the Canadian government because its victims are adversely affecting the profits of the Newfoundland fishing industry.
A harp seal can be legally killed as soon as it has begun to moult its white hair, around 2 weeks after birth. Adult seals are also killed. The seal hunt is one of the very few hunts that occurs in the spring when young are being born. As a result, roughly 80% of the seals killed in the commercial hunt are 'young of the year' - between approximately 12 days and 1 year old.
Six species of seals - including the harp, hooded, grey, ringed, bearded and harbour - are found off the Atlantic coast of Canada. Harp and hooded seals are the two most common species hunted commercially. In recent years small numbers of grey seals have been hunted for commercial use. The majority of seal pelts are still exported to Norway for processing. The seal pelts are either used for furs or leather.
Seal hunting is inhumane. Groups have campaigned on the issue for years and their evidence shows all the horror of the hunt. Many people remember the worldwide protest that arose in the 1970s over Canada’s killing of whitecoat seal pups (under two weeks old). The massive protest, with international campaigning against the Canadian seal hunt during the 70s & 80s, led to the European Union ban on the importation of whitecoat pelts in 1983, and eventually to the Canadian government banning large-vessel commercial whitecoat hunting in 1987.
Canada's cod fishery collapsed in the early 90s, and some in Canada blamed the seals, despite the fact that the greatest cause was clearly decades of over-fishing by humans. The collapse of fisheries around Newfoundland, due to mismanagement, is a major driver in the expansion of the seal hunt.
Although the Canadian seal hunt is the largest in the world and has the highest profile internationally, sealing is also carried out in a number of other countries across the world including Greenland, Namibia, Russia, Norway and Sweden.
Seals are also common victims of the animal entertainment industry. Aquariums and marine mammal theme parks are part of a billion-dollar industry built on the suffering of intelligent, social beings who are denied everything that is natural and important to them. Animals are taken from the wild; their families torn apart.
Marine parks have shown no more interest in conserving marine mammals' natural habitats than they have in educating audiences. Cetaceans do not belong in captivity where they are forced to perform meaningless tricks. They are often separated from family members when they’re shuffled between parks. Most die far short of their natural life spans.
The living conditions at these attractions are often dismal, with animals confined to tiny, filthy, barren enclosures, but even the best artificial environments can’t come close to matching the space, diversity, and freedom that cetaceans have in their natural habitats.